NZR Signals

Introduction

Signalling of trains became a must very soon after their acceptance as a viable means of transport. All early developments were in Britain where a host of different systems were developed, some surviving and developed further into more modern signally systems, some only used on an individual line and soon replaced by what were seen as better systems. The need for signals was of course an attempt to prevent the spate of horrific accidents that occurred, and as no system eliminated all types of accidents, the things that were learned from each subsequent accident, helped define new goals for the systems that were in use. Before electrical instruments were invented/introduced, safe operating of trains relied on running to a timetable. Again this was all fine provided nothing went wrong. If a train broke down, or stalled on a steep climb, there was real risk that a following train could collide with it.

There are several aspects to a signalling system; the physical signals which indicate to a train driver that he has permission to proceed or needs to stop or wait, but there are also the rules he has to work to so he proceeds safely. The general rules were provided is a separate rule book, and rules for specific locations in the Working Time Table, which as the name implies, also recorded lists of the times trains arrived and departed all the stations In the early days of railways trains ran to the timetable with the driver having to assume that there was no other train on the track. Where a train's route was long, signals could be positioned at locations along that route to keep trains at a safe distance from the train ahead.

As the railway became more complex, particularly with regard to station yards, the signalling system also had to ensure that the way was safe for the train to travel through the many sets of points. This meant a physical connection was required between those points (turnouts) and the signal box, so the signalman could set a safe route. Such a system was called interlocked, in that, provided the signalman had done his job properly, it 'locked' the route for the expected train and prevented other trains from getting onto the set track.

All early signalling systems required a signalman to control the individual signals and the sets of points they were associated with. At stations there were often too many signals for one signal man to work because they were not always close together, and so the concept of the signal box evolved, where one signal man could conveniently control many signals. There was a physical connection between a lever in the signal box and a signal or the movable points of a turnout. The signals were usually connected by a wire cable that was held under tension with a counterweight at the signal, but the points were connected by steel rods, because the action had to be able to both push and pull to effect the required change. For very big yards, two or even three signal boxes were were required as there was a limit to how far the mechanical links could operate reliably.

The New Zealand Scene

New Zealand was in some ways in a fortunate position, as the introduction of railways here was still a good number of years behind developments in Britain. This both allowed us to learn from some of the early mistakes made there, and also be in a position to purchase ready made solutions to the challenges that were faced in the world of railway signalling. The early railway systems in New Zealand were so independent of each other that it is a bit surprising that the basics of their safety systems were still quite similar. The operation of trains invariably requires a set of rules to allow that to happen safely, so those early systems were led by Canterbury, where operations began in 1863 but it was not until 1866 that they adopted their first rule book. It can only be assumed that train frequency and the limited track meant only one train was running at any one time. Southland's early railway ambitions failed and again their limited trackage and low train frequency probably meant they did not yet require formal rules. So it was not until 1872 that Otago produced a set of railway operating rules. Both Canterbury and Otago introduced semaphore signals at defined locations to indicate to train drivers the status of the way ahead.

Once Sections of track that had been constructed under the Railways Act 1872 became operational, they were operated under an NZR set of rules that came into force on 10 September 1874. All busy sections of track were worked under what is known as Block working, where a train driver had to be issued specific authority to enter a particular section of track. There were a number of different system trialed early on, but the first system adopted for wide-spread use was Winter's System, in use as a trial from 1882 between Dunedin and Burkes. Eventually ??km of track were operated on using Winter's block system, but from 1901 the Tyer's Tablet system was adopted as a standard block working system and eventually covered more than 2800km (1700 miles), over half of the NZR's network at that time. For the busy sections, Tablet working was replaced by Automatic Signalling, which utilised track circuits and relays to determine what colour lights to display for the train drivers. Due to the high cost of automatic signalling, some sections retained tablet working until their maintenance and operation became too expensive. This introduced the current system of Track Warrant Control, which is not all that dissimilar to Tblet working but does away with all the people operating tablet machines, often in remote areas. Now authority was issued by radio with instructions written on warrant forms. There are lots of lines that are operated under the Track warrant system but with automatic signalling at some of the stations which then have physical signals. for the driver to follow.

Signals are the interface between the tracks that trains run on, and the drivers of the trains that need to run. As such they need to operate in a reliable way and all systems that are installed are therefore subject to regular testing to ensure they meet the required standards. Signalling systems are inherently complex, and standardising the way they behave, ensures they do so in a predictable way. A train driver can then confidently operate his train on completely different sections if they both have the same signalling system. There are other things the driver requires , and that is known as the Signalling and Interlocking (S&I for short) Circular (or Diagram). These documents record the tracks and signals on the various section of a railway and their relative positions. The train driver needs to be familiar with the circulars applying to his route and will invariably have to refer to the relevant one if something out of the ordinary happens. These diagrams started to be produced once interlocking systems were developed and were progressively produced as the various station had better signally installed.

The simplest way to introduce the signalling systems used in New Zealand is to first get an overview of the systems used, and then to look at how those systems were adopted on the various line in the New Zealand network.

The systems of working trains

The type and placing of signals was intimately associated with the train operating rules that Railway staff had to abide by, so the Rules defined how a Driver had to respond to any signals he might given or encounter. A train driver therefore had to have a thorough knowledge of those rules. The introduction of new rules was usually triggered by some sort of mishap, not necessarily in New Zealand, that highlighted the risk a particular situation might present. This invariably got creative minds working on the problem and new equipment was invented to help prevent a recurrence of the original trigger. In this way it can be seen that signalling systems developed over a significant period of time, and different sections of a network as spread out as it was in new Zealand would end up with different systems operating on different line, all based on the risk associated with the operations on an individual line. For the Stationmaster or Signalman to be able to give reliable signals, he had to have knowledge of what was happening along the line and for this, the telegraph was introduced into railway operations from quite early on.

Block Working

The safest way to operate a railway is to only have one train working at a time, and many portions of New Zealand's railways both started and ended that way. The Greytown Branch for instance, was only about 5km long, and its whole life was operated by engines based at Greytown. With a maximum of five trains each way a day, safe operation was very straightforward. As soon as lines started to get longer, there was the need to have more than one train operating on the mainline at any one time, and for that to be able to happen safely, there were two situations that had to be prevented. a) trains traveling in opposite directions on the same track could collide, or b) one train following another on the same track could run into the back of it. The basic principal adopted to prevent those two situations occurring was what is termed "Block Working". This allowed only one train to be in a block (or section of track) at any one time. However, it is one thing to state that that is how trains will operate, it is quite another to implement it in a practical way to ensure safety. Many systems have been invented to attempt to guarantee only one train could be in any one block at a time, but no system is fail-safe where human operators are involved. Things go fine if everyone obeys the rules, but if someone is intent on breaking them or inadvertently forgets something, thinks can still go horribly wrong. There are two principal ways a block system can be worked Open section working and closed section working, and both are still used in New Zealand.

Open Section Working

Open Section working is the simplest and least safe method of train operations if basic rules are not followed. Permission to enter a 'section' is authorised by either a signalman giving authority to proceed, or the train driver driving to a timetable. There is no absolute guarantee that another train is not in the section, perhaps broken down. With modern radios and telephones, virtually all risk associated with this system is eliminated because the timetable will only have one possible train in that area. Before the days of modern communications, there were real risks, and this was highlighted most dramatically with the tail-end collision at Rakaia in 1899. Ten minutes after the departure of the first train from Ashburton, a second train departed, and by the time he got to Rakaia he could not tell that the train that had left Ashburton ahead of him had not left Rakaia station yet, and he collided with the rear of that train. Four people died as a result, and many were injured. As with every incident, there were many factors involved, in this case two factors can be highlighted as contributing to the driver making a serious error; his train had inadequate brakes (only the locomotive), and there was a lack of adequate signals (no Home or Distant signals). Both of these items were addressed, as a result. Westinghouse brake systems were progressively fitted to all mainline rolling stock, and closed block working was introduced on all busy lines standardising on the Tyer's Tablet system from 1901 onwards, with Home and Distant signals at all officered stations.

Closed Section Working

To overcome many of the problems inherent in a system that relied totally on people making decisions at the right time, electrical 'instruments' were invented to control some aspects of block systems. These were referred to as telegraph instruments as they were interconnected by one or two wires (depending on the system), and the operators at each end used a system of codes to pass standard messages to each other. The first such system was installed between Christchurch and Heathcote in 1874 to control trains movements through the tunnel. That first system used Cook and Wheatstone instruments but was very unreliable and after about three years use, it was replaced by Morse instruments.

A number of sections of the Hurunui - Bluff Railway, were protected by block instruments by 1881, mainly around Dunedin with the section from Waitati to Mosgiel divided into ten blocks. By 1884, two systems had already been trial at Lyttelton, and it was realised that there were four different systems in use elsewhere in the South Island, with a hint that perhaps a standard system should be adopted. The six systems were:

Cook and Wheatstone
Morse

Lemon
Tyer
Preece
Winter

The Cook and Wheatstone instruments were sent to New Zealand, possibly as surplus stock, for by the time they were installed at the Lyttelton Tunnel, they were already outdated and soon replaced. Cook and Wheatstone are credited with developing the telegraph principals into a practical system for use

Morse is of course a well known name, Samuel Morse invented his famous code in 1835 and an electromagnetic telegraph system that could use it in 1837. Though refined somewhat, the code is still in use today.

Little is known of the Lemon system other than the codes that were used and an obscure reference to ABC instruments. The system is however named after Charles Lemon who immigrated to New Zealand from London on completing his PhD, and in 1863 started as postmaster at Oamaru. He quickly rose in the ranks of the Telegraph Department and retired as Head of the Telegraph division of the Post and Telegraph Department in 1894. I have not found any records linking his telegraph expertise to railway telegraph requirements. Charles Lemon did develop a simple telegraph code for railway use which was used for a time with several systems installed by NZR.

Tyer block instruments were patented by Edward Tyer of London who had been inventing electrical apparatus for railways signalling since completing his formal education. The references here are for some of his earlier telegraph instruments but he is best known for his invention of the tablet system, widely used in New Zealand from 1901 onwards. Tyer developed his own code for use with his telegraph systems.

Two Preece Instruments were imported from London but do not seem to have been installed anywhere, possibly due to the decision to standardise on the Winter's system around the same time.

Winter's Block System

Winter's Block instruments were first introduced to New Zealand in 1882 and experimentally installed on the Dunedin - Burkes block section with successful operation resulting in this system becoming the standard for a number of years. They quickly replaced all earlier 'experimental' system

Staff and Ticket Working

A further system was introduced for double track working and was known as the Lock and Block system. This was originally developed by William Sykes in 1875 and widely used in Great Britain, but not introduced on NZR track till 1909 in Auckland. By 1915, there were 71km (44 miles) of track using this system utilising eighty instruments at 37 stations.

The above all relates to South Island train working, but in the North Island, a different system was used for a while. It too was an absolute block system where a train had to possess a physical 'staff' as authority to be on a section of track. As there was only one staff per section, trains had to travel in alternate directions to ensure the staff was available when needed, otherwise the staff had to be ferried to the opposite station on foot, or on horseback, not very practical. To overcome these difficulties, the 'permissive staff' system evolved. If two trains were scheduled in the same direction, the first would be issued a written authority to travel, and the second would carry the staff. This was known as 'staff and ticket' working and only used in North Island.

Marton to Mataroa (7 stations, 6 staffs) 
Longburn - Foxton (5 stations 6 staffs)
Napier - Spit (2 stations, 1 staff)
Woburn - Hutt Park (2 stations, 1 staff) only on race days

Tyer's Tablet System

Edward Tyer had made a profession out of designing railway telegraph equipment. This early equipment all magnetic circuits run off batteries. As mentioned earlier, some Tyer's instruments were trialed in New Zealand and were probably the ones installed between Oamaru and Waiareka Junction. These were eventually replaced by Winter's Block equipment in by 1891. With the continued advancement of equipment design, a major step was taken with the invention of the Tablet System by Tyer. It overcame the problem of the Staff and Ticket system in that now every train could carry a 'tablet' and machines at either end were configured such that once a tablet was issued to a train, another tablet could not be released till the earlier one was returned to either the machine that issued it, or the machine at the other end of the tablet section. The tablets were unique to a pair of machines and as a number of them were locked in each machine, there were no problems with several trains traveling in the same direction one after the other.